In September of 31 BC, Octavian defeated the naval forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Shortly thereafter he became Caesar Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. For the next 211 years the Roman Empire enjoyed an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity that became known as Pax Romana. It encompassed the rule of seventeen emperors, and ended with the death of the last one, Marcus Aurelius, on March 17, 180 AD. How did this period become so special?
Growth in the Empire: Prior to Pax Romana, Rome had been in various states of conflict for about 200 years, either civil wars or with outside entities. After Pax Romana came to an end, another period of civil wars and conflict with outside entities began and lasted into the 3rd and 4th centuries AD until the Roman Empire as it was known disintegrated. During Pax Romana, the empire doubled in size extending from Britain, to North Africa, and included perhaps as much as twenty-five percent of the world’s population. Augustus made some wise decisions with regard to management of the military, not the least of which, was to guarantee the soldier’s pension from the public treasury than from individual generals. This shifted the military’s loyalty towards Rome itself and away from various military commanders. The army was then deployed to extend the empire’s borders to areas that were more defensible. When new territories were acquired, local potentates were permitted to handle religious and local matters themselves as long as they accepted Roman rule. By using skillful propaganda, Augustus was able to convince Roman society that peace could bring as much or more wealth and prosperity than attempting risky, remote conquests.
Stable Central Government: Pax Romana was marked by a long stable period of rulers who, for the most part, carried on with the policies set forth by Augustus. Over half of the next sixteen emperors reigned for at least ten years with four ruling for over twenty years. Augustus himself reigned for forty years, seven months, and three days. Ten of the seventeen died from natural causes, which contrasted with the following eighty years when out of twenty-nine emperors only two died of natural causes. The others were either assassinated or killed in battle, and the average reign was less than five years.
Increased Foreign Trade: While Augustus was emperor, he directed the Roman Navy to clear out all pirates and make the Mediterranean Sea safe for transport and shipping. As a result, two-way trade with countries as far away as India and China flourished. The political stability enabled money lending to take place. The emperors of the era believed that they should do as much as possible to facilitate trade as it led to economic growth particularly in the provinces. This growth brought with it such public works as roads and bridges made passible in all types of weather, aqueducts bringing fresh water to growing urban areas, and harbors to handle increased volumes of shipping. As trade increased so did the incomes of the Romans who conducted it. Dovetailing with Pax Romana was Pax Sinica taking place at about the same time in China with the Han Dynasty. Long-distance travel and trade between Europe and East Asia were significantly enhanced and beneficial to both areas.
Major Innovations: Of the many innovations made or developed during Pax Romana, here are some of the most significant:
Aqueducts: Although aqueducts were invented years earlier in the Middle East, Roman engineers developed water systems for urban areas that provided for fresh water, public toilets, sewage removal, fountains and public baths—all supplied by a system of aqueducts that used gravity to bring in fresh water.
Concrete: Roman concrete existed as far back as 100 BC. Although not as strong as its modern-day counterpart, it was remarkably durable—especially when combined with volcanic rock. It resisted chemical decay enabling great structures to be built even with portions submerged in seawater.
Newspapers: The news of the times spread via “Acta Diurna” or daily acts. These were made out of metal or stone and posted in areas where they could be seen, such as the Forum. The news of the day included military, legal, and civil issues as well as proceedings of the Roman Senate.
Social Safety Nets: Social welfare programs similar to what exist today began in Pax Romana. The Romans had government programs that existed providing food or education, and helping the poor and needy with other expenses, including a list of price-controlled merchandise.
Bound Books: The written word of the times usually existed in large scrolls or clay tablets. During Pax Romana the codex was developed to organize these works into books. Tablets were first used in codices, but later were replaced by animal skin parchment or papyrus. Christians in particular were keen to use codices to coble together stories handed down by word of mouth into what became the Bible.
Roads: As the Roman Empire grew, the need for an overland transportation system grew. Roman roads were built to last with a slight crowning in the middle to provide for drainage. Their main usage was for the military, but mile markers and directional signs were posted to assist conventional travelers toward their destinations. More than 50,000 miles of roads were built during this period some of which are still in use today.
Arches: Arches existed long before Pax Romana, but the concept was used in buildings all over the Roman Empire during the period. By employing an arch in the design, Roman engineers could more evenly distribute weight among a building’s supporting uprights so that the structures would not collapse under their own weight.
Calendars: Prior to Pax Romana, Greek calendars based upon the lunar cycle were commonly used. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar with help of the astronomer Sosigenes developed a solar based calendar that established the twelve-month year that we use today. The Julian calendar was very accurate, but had a minor issue that was later corrected by the addition of a “leap year” every four years.
Military Field Surgery: The medical corps of the Roman Army made advances in field surgery that resulted in saving thousands of lives. The corps oversaw sanitation in encampments, disinfected surgical instruments in hot water before use, and developed devices to reduce blood loss such as hemostatic tourniquets and surgical clamps. Surviving soldiers often lived longer than ordinary civilians owing to these advances.
Revitalized Arts: During Pax Romana a rebirth of the arts and literature took place as Augustus patronized artists for their works that glorified the empire. During this period Virgil wrote the Aeneid, the mythical story of the founding of Rome, and Livy wrote the History of Rome that was in great demand during the early years of the empire. Through major beautification programs, Rome itself was developed into the “Eternal City” that it is known as today. The Colosseum, the Pantheon, a new Senate house, and perhaps a dozen new temples were built, and the Roman Forum was expanded all during this period.
Conclusions: What made Pax Romana so effective was trade. The rise in trade resulted in a major growth in the economy. Although the period was characterized as being largely peaceful, there were nonetheless a number of minor conflicts that took place in various parts of the empire. The contrast between this period and the ones that preceded and followed it which were filled with turmoil, gave Pax Romana its name.
Sources: History.com, How Ancient Rome Thrived During Pax Romana, Christopher Klein, June 8th, 2023.
Wikipedia, Pax Romana.
Wikipedia, List of Roman Emperors.
History.com, 10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome, Evan Andrews,
June 26th, 2023.